DW | Ancient Egypt
05 – Rise of the Old Kingdom
Welcome to the DW World History Series. In the last episode, we discussed the first Pharaohs and ended with little known Dynasty II. Pharaoh Khasekhemwy, the last Pharaoh of the 2nd Dynasty, united Egypt once more and was succeeded by his son, Pharaoh Djoser. We focus on this king, how he constructed the first step pyramid in Ancient Egypt, and follow the rise of the Old Kingdom.
Let's first examine the burial practices of Egypt up to this time, as they are about to drastically change. Originally, the dead were placed into sand pit burials in the middle of the desert. These burials were impermanent by nature and were often disturbed by the wind and jackals, which had the terrible habit of digging up the dead. Jackals have an unusual digestive system and prefers decayed meat. These animals would prowl the cemeteries and find these bodies, thus revealing that these sand pit burials were not so permanent. As a result, the Egyptians began removing sand to ground level and cutting into the bedrock to carve a tomb.
Eventually these burials became more elaborate and structures began to be built over them, some with rooms in them, where one could go in and pay respect to the dead. These tombs became known as mastabas – the Arabic word for bench – because its rectangular construction resembled a bench.
5.1 - Pharaoh Djoser (c. 2686-2648 BC)
Djoser ruled from 2686-2648 BC and was the first king of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, reigning for over twenty years. Very little is known of Djoser's youth or family life. His name Netjerikhet means "divine of body" and 'Djoser' is derived from the Djed symbol of stability. He succeeded his father, Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second Dynasty, and his mother was the queen Nimaathap. His wife was Hetephernebti who was probably his half-sister.
The stability of the country under Djoser was due in part to his success in securing his borders and then extending them. Expansion of the realm into the region of Sinai was accomplished through military expeditions. He defeated the Libyans in battle and annexed part of their lands.
Although cities had begun to grow during the First Dynasty, under Djoser's reign they became more numerous and the architecture more ornate. Djoser's pyramid complex alone is the best example of the great advance in architectural design at the beginning of the Third Dynasty.
Historian Marc Van de Mieroop writes, "Earlier complexes at Abydos and at Saqqara near Memphis had been massive but they were of mud brick. A few elements only were of stone. Djoser's Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara was the earliest construction of its size in world history fully made of stone."
Building in stone seems to have been the idea of Imhotep whose inscription appears on the Step Pyramid as chief architect. Imhotep designed the pyramid under Djoser's reign, however, and so credit for working in stone was divided between him and his king. Later Egyptians referred to Djoser as the "opener of stone", meaning he was the first to use stone as a building material.
The statue of Djoser, erected at the complex, is the oldest known life-sized Egyptian statuary ever discovered and would have been created for this purpose as well as to remind the living of the legacy of the great king.
5.2 - The Step Pyramid
The mastabas of officials from the previous dynasties had lined the edge of the plateau at Saqqara, overlooking Memphis from the West. Djoser decided to move his monument back from the plateau's edge by about a mile before building his mastaba. Originally, this project was a normal mastaba, however, his architect and vizier, Imhotep, enlarged the mastaba several times while stacking mastaba on top of mastaba. What he created was the first stone building in history which consisted of six unequal steps rising to 204 feet. Known as the Step Pyramid, this temple complex also had a substructure of honeycomb shafts and tunnels.
This construction was probably three or four times larger than any other building on the planet at the time. Here, Djoser built chapels and planned a complex intended for use as a courtyard for the Heb-sed and other rituals. The Heb-sed festival celebrated the rejuvenation of the aging pharaoh every thirty years. When observing the decoration details for this temple complex, one can see that the stone imitates the reed construction techniques from previous temples in the past. The fine fluting on the columns immediately call to the mind the Greek Doric column, but this comes an amazing 2000 years later.
The complex covers 37 acres and is about 2.5 times as large as the Old Kingdom town of Heirakonpolis. Several features of the complex differ from those of later Old Kingdom pyramids. The mortuary temple is situated at the north side of the pyramid, whereas in later pyramids it is on the east side. Also, Djoser’s complex is built on a North-South axis, whereas later complexes utilize an East-West axis. Furthermore, the Djoser complex has one niched enclosure wall, whereas later pyramids have two enclosure walls, with the outside one being smooth and the inside one being sometimes niched.
The Enclosure Wall
The enclosure wall was built of light Tura limestone 34 ft high. The wall is interrupted by 14 doors, 13 of which were fake, or false doors. They were meant only for the king’s use in the afterlife. They functioned as portals through which the king’s ka, or soul, could pass between life and the afterlife. The functional door at the southeast end of the complex lead to a narrow passageway that connects to a roofed colonnade.
The Roofed Colonnade
The roofed colonnade led from the enclosure wall to the south of the complex. A passageway with a limestone ceiling, constructed to look as though it was made from whole tree trunks, led to a massive stone imitation of two open doors. Beyond this portal was a hall with twenty pairs of limestone columns composed of drum shaped segments built to look like bundles of plant stems and reaching a height of 22 ft. The columns were not free-standing, but were attached to the wall by masonry projections.
Between the columns on both sides of the hall were small chambers, which some Egyptologists propose may have been for each of the provinces of Upper and Lower Egypt. At the end of the colonnade was the transverse hypostyle room with eight columns connected in pairs by blocks of limestone. This led to the South Court.
The South Court
The South Court was the large court between the South Tomb and the pyramid. At the southern end of the court was a platform approached by steps. It has been suggested that this was a platform for the double throne. This fits into the theory proposed by Barry Kemp, and generally accepted by many, that suggests the whole step pyramid complex symbolized the royal palace enclosure and allowed the king to eternally perform the rituals associated with kingship. At the very south of the South Court lay the South Tomb.
The South Tomb
The South Tomb is comparable to the satellite pyramids of later Dynasties, and is considered the home of the ka in the afterlife. This was Djoser's southern burial, just a couple of hundred yards from the Step Pyramid. This construction was a mastaba – not a pyramid.
The substructure of the South Tomb was entered through a tunnel-like corridor with a staircase that descended about 100 feet before opening up into the pink granite burial chamber. The staircase then continued west and lead to a gallery that imitated the blue chambers below the step pyramid. Blue tiles on the inside, made of ceramic called faience, featured the king running a Heb-sed festival. The symbolic king’s inner palace is much more complete than that of the pyramid.
The Step Pyramid
The pyramid was not simply a grave in ancient Egypt. Its purpose was to facilitate a successful afterlife for the king so that he could be eternally reborn. It also facilitated the king’s ascension to join the eternal North Star.
Under the step pyramid is a labyrinth of tunneled chambers and galleries that total nearly 4 miles in length and connect to a central shaft 23 feet wide and 92 feet deep. These spaces provided room for the king’s burial, the burial of family members, and the storage of goods and offerings. The entrance to the shaft was built on the north side of the pyramid, a trend that would remain throughout the Old Kingdom. The sides of the underground passages were limestone inlaid with blue faience tile just like the South Tomb's substructure.
These walls also revealed the king participating in the Heb-sed Festival. These chambers resembled the palace and would serve as the new palace of the royal ka. In the storerooms, over 40,000 stone vessels were discovered, many of which predated Djoser. These would have served Djoser’s visceral needs in the afterlife.
An extensive network of underground galleries were located to the north, west, and south of the central burial chamber and crude horizontal magazines were carved into these.
The Burial Chamber
The burial chamber was a vault constructed of four courses of well-dressed granite. It had one opening, which was sealed with a 3.5 ton block after the burial. No mummy was recovered as the tomb had been extensively robbed during antiquity. Archaeologists found evidence of limestone blocks with five pointed stars in low relief that were likely on the ceiling, indicating the first occurrence of what would become a tradition.
Unfortunately, all of the precautions and intricate design of the underground complex did not prevent ancient robbers from finding a way in. Djoser's grave goods, and even his mummy, were stolen at some point in the past and all the archaeologists found of the king was parts of his mummified foot and a few valuables overlooked by the thieves.
The North Temple and Serdab Court
The northern (funerary/mortuary) temple was on the north side of the pyramid. This structure was the cult center for the king. To the east of the temple was the serdab, which was a small enclosed structure that housed the ka statue.
This small statue of the Pharaoh was where his soul could live if his body was destroyed or until he was resurrected. This temple appeared on the north side of the pyramid throughout the Third Dynasty, as the king wished to go north to become one of the eternal stars in the North Sky that never set. In the Fourth Dynasty, when there was a religious shift to an emphasis on rebirth and eternity achieved through the sun, the mortuary temple was moved to the east side of the pyramid where the sun rises, so that through association with the sun the king could be reborn every day.
Heb-sed Court
The Heb-sed court was parallel to the South Courtyard. It was meant to provide a space in which the king could perform the Heb-sed ritual. Flanking the east and west sides of the court were the remains of two groups of chapels, many of which were dummy buildings, of three different architectural styles.
Imhotep
Imhotep is one of the few Egyptian architects to be known to us by name. Revered as a scribe, counselor, doctor, priest, and astronomer, he was later deified and worshiped as a god of architecture and medicine.
Devotees made pilgrimages to Saqqara where he is most likely buried. He was one of only two commoners ever to be deified after death (the other being Amenhotep, son of Hapu).
5.3 - Pharaoh Sekhemkhet and the Buried Pyramid (c. 2648-2640 BC)
Sekhemkhet, whose name translates to "Powerful in Body," succeeded Djoser as the ruler. It is believed that he reigned from approximately 2648-2640 BC. Not much is known about the activities that took place during Sekhemkhet's reign, but two rock inscriptions at Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai Peninsula provide some insight. The first inscription depicts Sekhemkhet wearing both the white and red crowns, while the second shows him in the act of "smiting the enemy," grasping a foe by the hair and raising his arm to strike with a ceremonial sceptre. These reliefs suggest that mining operations for copper and turquoise were carried out locally during his reign.
Continuing the pyramid-building tradition, King Sekhemkhet commissioned the construction of a step pyramid. Unfortunately, he passed away before the pyramid could be completed. The discovery of this unfinished pyramid was recorded in 1951. Only the first step of the pyramid was completed, leaving a monument in the shape of a large square mastaba. Although the king's misfortune prevented the completion of the pyramid, it turned out to be a blessing for historians. An incomplete pyramid holds more interest than a finished one because it offers the opportunity to study its construction process.
Known as the Buried Pyramid, this step pyramid would have risen in seven steps to a height of around 230 feet, 16 feet higher than Djoser's pyramid. The walls of the pyramid remained rough, indicating that the stones were not fully finished at the quarry before being transported to the pyramid site. The walls were initially constructed with a somewhat rough surface, and then a worker would use a chisel to give them a polished finish.
This aspect further emphasizes the immense work by the ancient Egyptians in building pyramids. It would have been comparatively easier to complete the blocks at a uniform standard and then transport them to the site, as each block would be lighter and reduce the volume of stone to be transported.
Sekhemkhet's pyramid also features another unique aspect. When excavators discovered the pyramid, they found the burial chamber still sealed. This find generated great excitement because it was the first fully intact burial chamber discovered since Tutankhamen's tomb. Excavators proceeded deeper into the pyramid and opened the corridor leading to the burial chamber. In a decayed wooden casket, gold was discovered which included gold bracelets, cosmetic cases, beads, and jars inscribed with Sekhemkhet's name. An ivory plaque bearing the form of Sekhemkhet's Saqqara King List name of "Djoserti" was found in the remains of his step pyramid tomb.
When the long-awaited moment to unseal and open the burial chamber arrived, every important dignitary in Egypt, along with a large contingent of media personnel, was invited to witness the event. With great care, the burial chamber was opened, revealing a stone sarcophagus that remained sealed.
On top of the sarcophagus, remnants of burnt plants were found. These were believed to be the remains of a funerary wreath, burned as an offering by the ancient Egyptians. The dignitaries and the media eagerly anticipated the final reveal of Horus Sekhemkhet's mummy inside the sarcophagus.
Opening the lid of the sarcophagus proved to be particularly challenging. Unlike the usual top lid, it was located on the side of the sarcophagus. Eventually, with extreme caution, the lid was opened, only to disclose an empty tomb. This was a major disappointment.
Currently, two theories exist regarding why Horus Sekhemkhet's sarcophagus was empty. The first theory suggests that Sekhemkhet followed the tradition of previous kings, including Djoser, by having dual burials. In this case, the incomplete pyramid served as the king's cenotaph or false burial site. The second theory proposes that King Sekhemkhet anticipated tomb robbers and used this unfinished step pyramid as an elaborate decoy to mislead them.
The second theory is less plausible than the first because tomb robbers were typically the same individuals who constructed the tombs. They possessed detailed knowledge about the pyramids and knew precisely where the king stored his valuable gifts, jewelry, and treasures. Therefore, the builders of Sekhemkhet's pyramid were aware that the king was not inside the sarcophagus, leading them to leave this pyramid undisturbed. If this incomplete step pyramid is indeed a cenotaph, the true burial site of Horus Sekhemkhet has yet to be discovered.
5.4 – Pharaoh Sanakht
The true identity and position of Sanakht in the Third Dynasty of Egypt are subjects of ongoing debate and uncertainty.
Some theories propose that Sanakht may have usurped the throne at the beginning of the dynasty, only to be overthrown by Djoser, who then arranged the burial of his father, Khasekhemwy. Another suggestion is that Sanakht could have been Djoser's brother, although this idea lacks substantial support.
There is also speculation that Sanakht and Nebka, listed as the first pharaoh of the 3rd Dynasty in various ancient lists, may be one and the same person, although the placement of Sanakht within the dynasty remains disputed. Some sources propose a later position, possibly even after Khaba or Huni. The Westcar Papyrus, written during the Middle Kingdom, places Nebka after Djoser.
The exact duration of Sanakht's reign is unknown, and there are few surviving relics from his time as king. This raises doubts about the traditional figure of 18 years attributed to his reign by Manetho and the Turin Canon. It should be noted that both Manetho and the Turin Canon were compiled many centuries after the Third Dynasty, making their information potentially inaccurate or unreliable. The Turin Canon, for example, was transcribed on papyri during the reign of Ramesses II in the New Kingdom.
Very little is known about Sanakht's activities during his reign. The presence of reliefs depicting him alongside Djoser in Wadi Maghareh in the Sinai suggests that there was an important Egyptian presence in that area during the Third Dynasty. Expeditions were likely undertaken to procure mineral resources, particularly turquoise, from that region.
5.5 – Pharaoh Khaba and the Layer Pyramid (c. 2640-2637 BC)
Khaba, whose name means “the soul appears”, is a difficult king to study. Because of the contradictions within Ramesside king lists and the lack of contemporary, festive inscriptions, his exact chronological position within the dynasty remains disputed. The exact time during which Khaba ruled is unknown, but may have been around c. 2640- 2637 BC, and almost definitely towards the end of the dynasty.
The current archaeological situation allows no closer evaluation of Khaba's reign. The seal impressions from Elephantine only prove that this island seems to have been an important place to visit in Khaba's time.
Khaba is commonly thought to have built the Layer Pyramid, located at Zawyet al'Aryan, about 8 km south-west of Giza. The pyramid's construction is typical of Third Dynasty masonry with mudbricks arranged in layers around a core made of rough blocks from the local bedrock. The pyramid was planned to be about 42 to 45m (138 to 148 ft) tall, but is now only 17m (56 ft). It is unclear whether part of the pyramid has been eroded over time or its construction was never finished. While there are no inscriptions directly relating the pyramid to Khaba, his serekh appears on stone bowls that were discovered in a nearby mastaba, known as Mastaba Z500.
The disposition of the substructures of the layer pyramid was extremely similar to that found in the Buried Pyramid of Sekhemket. Consequently, Mark Lehner and others suggest that the two pyramids were constructed very close in time.
The subterranean structure's entrance was positioned on the east, a unique arrangement not seen again until the construction of Senusret II's pyramid nearly 1000 years later. This entrance led to a steep stairway measuring 118 feet in length, descending to a corridor that extended westward. The corridor eventually terminated in a vertical shaft, with the upper corridor situated at its top. This upper corridor, an unfinished passage, headed south toward the center of the pyramid.
At the bottom of the shaft, there was a T-shaped crossway. On the right side of the T-shaped crossway, there was a U-shaped gallery system. The layout of the gallery system resembled the teeth of a comb, comprising 32 chambers arranged in rows. When explored, the gallery was found to be completely empty and pristine, as if the workers had just recently departed, as noted by Mark Lehner.
Turning left at the crossway led to the lower corridor, which contained a narrow stairway so cramped that it would have been difficult to pass a sarcophagus through. The lower corridor ultimately led to the king's burial chamber.
The king's burial chamber, situated 85 feet below ground level, held no evidence of a sarcophagus. This, coupled with the absence of artifacts in the gallery, suggested the possibility of the king's premature death.
A side note about the term 'sarcophagus'. While a coffin is typically made of wood, a sarcophagus is made of stone. The term "sarcophagus" originates from Ancient Greece. When the Greeks arrived in Egypt and opened some of these stone structures, they found poorly preserved mummies, essentially reduced to skeletons. As a result, they coined the term "sarcophagus," meaning "flesh eater," to describe these stone containers.
5.6 – Pharaoh Huni (c. 2637-2613 BC)
Pharaoh Huni ,“the smiter”, was the last pharaoh of the third dynasty who ruled in roughly c. 2637 to 2613 BC. We do not know whether he was the son of Khaba, his most likely predecessor, or if he was actually Khaba himself. Huni is seen by scholars as a confusing figure in Egyptian history, because he was long remembered in Egyptian tradition, but very few documents, objects or monuments from his reign have endured. There was an official in the court of Djoser named Huni who may have been promoted to the position of pharaoh. Huni was the father of Queen Hetepheres I, the wife of Sneferu who was his successor and the first king of the fourth dynasty.
Next to nothing is known of Huni's time in power. Huni is given a reign of 24 years by the Turin Canon, which is commonly accepted by scholars. No religious or military activities are known from his reign. Huni did build a fortress on the island of Elephantine to protect the border of Egypt at the First Cataract.
If Huni is Khaba, then he would be responsible for creating the Layer Pyramid mentioned already. He was once thought to be the creator of the Meidum Pyramid, however, that pyramid is now credited to Pharaoh Sneferu. Huni's burial site remains unknown. Since the Meidum pyramid can be excluded, Egyptologists and archaeologists propose several alternative burial sites.
The end of the Third Dynasty closes with the death of Pharaoh Huni. His son-in-law, Sneferu, would lead the Fourth Dynasty into the greatest period of the Old Kingdom. We begin the next episode on this incredible pharaoh.
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