Ancient Egypt – Rise of the New Kingdom
- dwworldhistory
- Jul 15
- 13 min read
DW | Ancient Egypt
13 – Rise of the New Kingdom
Welcome to the DW World History Series. In the last episode, we discussed the Second Intermediate Period and the expulsion of the Hyksos. The Pharaoh responsible for this liberation of Egypt was Ahmose I and he begins the 18th Dynasty with the rise of the New Kingdom. The topics of this chapter include the first four kings of the 18th Dynasty and the first constructions in the Valley of the Kings.
13.1 - Pharaoh Ahmose I (1549-1541 BC)
The war against the Hyksos had not been without cost. Ahmose I came to the throne at a young age after both his father and older brother were killed in the war. He would rule from c. 1549-1541 BC.
His mother, Queen Ahhotep, was a powerful figure and may have acted as co-regent with him in the early years of his reign. Women in Egypt were always more important than in any other ancient civilization. However, the 18th Dynasty really set the standard for their power. Pharaoh Ahmose's wife, Queen Ahmose-Nefertari, was the first to be named 'God's Wife' and 'Heiress', legitimizing matrilineal succession of pharaohs. Although the record isn't clear, one apparently became pharaoh by marrying the right woman – the one who had the most royal blood flowing through her veins, usually the daughter of the king and queen.
There is no Egyptian word for queen. What we define as queen, they defined as 'Great Wife'. A pharaoh could have many 'queens' but only one 'Great Wife', one who was considered the chief wife of the pharaoh. Their children were always next in line for the throne. Beneath the 'Great Wife' were other wives who were married to the king. They had full rights and their children sometimes became king based on the circumstances. Beneath them were the concubines. Their sons could also become king, but only on rare occasions.
After expelling the Hyksos, Ahmose I initiated a series of rapid campaigns that restored Egyptian power in Syria and Nubia. He then reorganized the administration of the country, reopened quarries, mines, and trade routes and began massive construction projects of a type not seen since the time of the Middle Kingdom.
Excavations at the site of Avaris by Manfred Bietak have shown that Ahmose had a palace constructed on the site of the former Hyksos capital city's fortifications. Bietak found fragmentary Minoan-style remains of the frescoes that once covered the walls of the palace; there has subsequently been much speculation as to what role this Aegean civilization may have played in terms of trade and in the arts.
Under Ahmose's reign, the city of Thebes became the capital for the whole of Egypt, as it had been under the 11th Dynasty in the early Middle Kingdom. It also became the center for a newly established professional civil service, where there was a greater demand for scribes and the literate as the royal archives began to fill with accounts and reports. Having Thebes as the capital was probably a strategic choice as it was located at the center of the country, the logical conclusion from having had to fight the Hyksos in the north as well as the Nubians to the south. Any future opposition at either border could be met easily from this location.
Perhaps the most important shift was a religious one: Thebes effectively became the religious as well as the political center of the country, its local god Amun credited with inspiring Ahmose in his victories over the Hyksos. The importance of the temple complex at Karnak (on the east bank of the Nile north of Thebes) grew and the importance of the previous cult of Ra (based in Heliopolis) diminished.
Pyramid of Ahmose I
Ahmose I's building program culminated in the construction of the last pyramid built by native Egyptian rulers. Located at Abydos, this pyramid was constructed from sand and rubble and only the usual limestone casing kept the building in shape. It had a base length of 172 ft and was about 130 ft high. The inclination of the sides was a steep 60°. It did not feature any chambers for burial. Around the pyramid were a number of temples and also a small cenotaph pyramid for his grandmother Tetisheri.
Ahmose I was most likely buried with his predecessors at Dra Abu el-Naga. Although his mummy has been found, his tomb location remains unknown.
The pyramid complex would be abandoned by subsequent pharaohs of the New Kingdom. The pyramid form was associated with the god Ra, who had been overshadowed by Amun in importance. One of the meanings of Amun's name was the 'hidden one', which meant that it was theologically permissible to hide the Pharaoh's tomb by fully separating his mortuary temple from the actual burial place. This provided the added advantage that the resting place could be kept hidden from tomb robbers. All subsequent Pharaohs of the New Kingdom would be buried in the rock-cut shaft tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
13.2 - Pharaoh Amenhotep I (1541-1520 BC)
Ahmose I was succeeded by his son, Amenhotep I, who would rule from 1541-1520 BC. However, he has left very few records, and his burial tomb has not been found. He did continue the military pattern of his father. According to the tomb texts of Ahmose, son of Ebana, Amenhotep sought to expand Egypt's border southward into Nubia and he led an invasion force which defeated the Nubian army.
Egypt had lost the Western Desert and the oases during the Second Intermediate Period, and during the revolt against the Hyksos, Kamose thought it necessary to garrison them. During Amenhotep's reign, the area returned to Egyptian rule.
Amenhotep was the first Pharaoh to separate his mortuary temple from his tomb. This temple was constructed at the north end of Dier el-Bahari, which was largely demolished 50-years later by Queen Hatshepsut to make way for her mortuary temple. The royal statues inside of this temple were moved to the nearby funerary temple of Mentuhotep II. His tomb has not been identified, although his mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri Cache. He is the only royal mummy which has not been unwrapped by modern Egyptologists.
Large numbers of statues of Amenhotep have been found, but they are mostly from the Ramesside period and relate to his continuing funerary cult. This makes the study of the art of his reign difficult. Based upon his few authentic statues, it appears that Amenhotep continued the practice of copying Middle Kingdom styles. Art in the early 18th dynasty was particularly similar to that of the early Middle Kingdom, and the statues produced by Amenhotep I clearly copied those of Mentuhotep II and Senusret I. The two types are so similar that modern Egyptologists have had trouble telling the two apart.
Amenhotep's reign saw literary developments. “The Book of What is in the Underworld”, an important funerary text used in the New Kingdom, (better known as 'The Egyptian Book of the Dead') is believed to have reached its final form during Amenhotep's reign, since it first appears in the decoration of the tomb of his successor, Tuthmosis I (Thutmose).
13.3 - Pharaoh Tuthmosis I (1520-1492 BC)
Amenhotep I was not succeeded by a son, but instead by a military man, Tuthmosis I. This is usually a break in dynasty, however, Tuthmosis I was most likely a co-regent during the last years of Amenhotep's reign. Tuthmosis I also married the princess, Ahmose Meritamun II, who was the daughter of Ahmose I and Queen Nefertari. Since ancient Egypt was a matrilineal society, he had married into the royal blood line.
Upon Tuthmosis I's coronation in 1520 BC, he led the greatest Nubian Campaign all the way to the Fourth Cataract when Nubia revolted. With him on this journey was Ahmose, son of Ebana. In Nubia, Tuthmosis I conquered two tribes and the Bedouins, which the Egyptians called the 'sand dwellers'. Tuthmosis I personally traveled up the Nile and killed the Nubian king. Upon victory, he had the Nubian king's body hung from the prow of his ship before returning to Thebes. Again, Egypt's centralized government prevailed over tribal Nubia. Nubia did not become centralized until about the 25th Dynasty. As a result, Egypt never had any real trouble conquering them. Nubians were very skilled as bowmen, and were used in the Egyptian army as mercenaries shortly after this time.
Tuthmosis I also conducted a Syrian campaign where he crossed the Euphrates River. This was the first major river which the Egyptians had encountered that flowed from North to South, and they found it very strange. During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Tuthmosis I. But after he returned to Egypt, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions.
Tuthmosis I organized great building projects during his reign. His greatest project was at the Temple of Karnak, which was under the supervision of his architect Ineni. Previous to Tuthmosis I, Karnak probably only consisted of a long road to a central platform with a number of solar shrines along the road. He was the first Pharaoh to drastically enlarge the temple. He also erected two obelisks at the Temple of Karnak.
Tomb (KV20)
Tuthmosis I was also the first Pharaoh to be definitely buried in the Valley of the Kings. Ineni was commissioned to dig his tomb (KV20), very likely the first tomb to be constructed in the Valley. Ineni was responsible for major construction projects under the pharaohs Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II and the joint reigns of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. He had many titles, including Superintendent of the Granaries, Superintendent of the Royal Buildings, Superintendent of the Workmen in the Karnak Treasuries, among others.
Ineni, on the walls of his own tomb, talks about building the first tomb in the Valley of the Kings:
'I inspected the excavation of the cliff tomb of his Majesty... alone.
No one seeing, no one hearing. It was a work of my heart. My virtue
was wisdom. There was not given to me a command by an elder.'
This means he did this by his own authority, most likely coming up with the idea himself. He continues:
'I shall be praised because of my wisdom after years by those who shall
imitate what I have done.'
The pharaohs up to this point had tried to hide their tomb entrances. Noting that every tomb had been eventually robbed during the First Intermediate Period, and now during the Second Intermediate Period, they realized it was futile and began to hide their actual tomb. Remember that Amenhotep I was the first Pharaoh to separate his mortuary temple from his tomb. Now, with Ineni's innovative idea to construct these tombs in the Valley, tomb secrecy would be the main focus throughout the remainder of the New Kingdom.
KV20 was the original burial place of Thutmose I (who was later re-interred in KV38) and later was adapted by his daughter Hatshepsut to accommodate her and her father. The tomb was known to the Napoleonic Expedition in 1799, but a full clearance of the tomb was only undertaken by Howard Carter in 1903, although it had been visited by several explorers between 1799 and 1903. (KV20) is distinguished from other tombs in the valley, both in its general layout and because of the atypical clockwise curvature of its corridors.
The tomb descended through a series of five corridors (B, C1, D1, C2, D2), two ending in chambers with central descents (C1, C2), until it reached chamber (J1). From there, a corridor (G) led to the burial chamber (J2). Three low-ceilinged side chambers (Ja-c) were cut into the north end of the latter. Because the soft shale walls of the burial chamber, they were unsuitable for decoration. Mortuary texts were written in red and black ink on limestone blocks which probably lined the walls.
Archaeological evidence reveals that KV20 originally extended only to chamber (J1), in which Thutmose I first was interred, and that the tomb was re-cut and refurbished during the reign of Hatshepsut to accommodate the burial of both her and her father (J2). Later, the burial of Thutmose I was moved again, to KV38, by his grandson Thutmose III while the burial of Hatshepsut probably remained in KV20, eventually suffering from robbery (and official dismantling).
Tomb (KV38)
The plan for tomb KV38 was simple, consisting of a steep corridor (B) which opened into a small, unevenly cut chamber (C). A steep descent (C) led down from the center of this chamber to the burial chamber (J), which was provided with a single side chamber (Ja) off its left (south) wall. The tomb was poorly cut, and water penetration has further contributed to the tomb's rough appearance. Only in the burial chamber were there traces of decoration.
Tuthmosis I's mummy was discovered in an 1881 mummy cache at Deir el-Bahari. This cache revealed many of the mummies of the New Kingdom which had been saved during the later 21st Dynasty.
As I've mentioned before, the Egyptians generally lived on the east side of the Nile and constructed their tombs on the west. The Egyptians associated the west with the dead because the sun died in the west everyday. The Valley of the Kings is located on the west-bank of the Nile, directly across from the Temple of Karnak at Thebes. In looking for a place to construct a secret tomb, Ineni chose the most barren, inhospitable location. Nothing grows in the Valley. The humidity is also usually about 18, a number not normally used to rate humidity. Its a very dry place. A virtue of this spot is that it only has one passageway, one entrance into the Valley so it is easily guarded. Another reason for picking the area was the natural pyramid, located at the top of the cliffs, which are about 100 feet high.
Ineni was also commissioned to build Tuthmosis I's mortuary temple. This temple has not been found, most likely because it was incorporated or destroyed by Hatshepsut's mortuary temple.
13.4 - Pharaoh Tuthmosis II (1492-1479 BC)
Tuthmosis was succeeded by his young son, Tuthmosis II, who ruled from 1492-1479 BC. Son of a minor wife, Tuthmosis II was married to his half-sister, Hatshepsut, in order to strengthen his position. Hatshepsut was the daughter of Queen Ahmose.
A quick side note... Her marriage to Tuthmosis II lasted for 20 years. This marriage, by all accounts, seems to have been uneventful. Tuthmosis II doesn't build any great temples, doesn't build any obelisks, and doesn't seem to do anything of any great value. Since we've recovered his mummy, he doesn't appear to have been very attractive. As Bob Brier put it: “It may have been a long 20 years for Queen Hatshepsut.” After she became pharaoh, she never mentioned her husband. He was not included when she decided to bury her father in her tomb in the Valley. Her silence says a lot, and is kind of sad... I wish we had more information.
Upon Tuthmosis II's coronation, Nubia rebelled and the Egyptian army was sent to crush the revolt. An account of the campaign is given by the Jewish historian Josephus who refers to it as the Ethiopic War.
Tuthmosis II had one son by a harem girl, named Isis. He may have also had a daughter, named Neferure, by Hatshepsut. Realizing the ambition of his wife, he endeavored to curtail it by declaring his son, Tuthmosis III, successor before he died. She would eventually usurp the throne anyway.
Tomb (Wadi C-4)
Until 2025, a variety of locations had been proposed for the location of Thutmose II's tomb. It was speculated that it may have originally been KV42, but the lack of royal funerary equipment suggests the tomb was never used for burial.
In 2025, Egyptian Egyptologists from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities announced that the tomb Wadi C-4 was the tomb of Thutmose II. The tomb showed many features typical for a king's burial, such as a blue-painted ceiling with yellow stars, the remains of an Amduat depicted on the walls and inscribed vessels bearing the king's name and Hatshesput's name as his great wife. Additionally, fragments of alabaster jars with the names of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut were found in the tomb which helped confirm ownership. The tomb is the first royal tomb discovered in the Valley of the Kings area since the Tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922. The tomb was built under waterfalls, leading to periodic flash flooding which damaged the tomb throughout the ages.
According to the Mohamed Abdel Badi, head of the Egyptian Antiquities Sector:
"The tomb is situated in a poorly-chosen place beneath two waterfalls
and at the bottom of a slope down which water would have (and did)
pour in the much wetter weather of the 18th dynasty."
The tomb exhibits a simple architectural design characteristic of the period following Thutmose II's reign, which influenced the burial structures of subsequent Egyptian rulers. The tomb was built around an early variation of a left-turning bent axis design that became standard for later Eighteenth Dynasty royal tombs.
The tomb has three larger chambers, labeled A, B, D by the excavators. Chamber C is a smaller one, next to chamber B. Chamber A (5.3 m × 5.2 m or 17 ft × 17 ft and 3.4 m or 11 ft high) is the innermost and largest one that was once decorated, but only small parts of the decoration are preserved, mainly in the corners. Archaeologists have determined that it is very likely to have been the burial chamber of the tomb. There are two corridors, Corridor 1 is the main one forming the entrance and leading to chamber D. Corridor 2 is later. It starts on the west side of corridor 1 and goes to the main chamber A where it enters the room 1.7 m above floor level.
The "unusual" second corridor features a white gypsum plaster finishing and exhibited evidence of two enlargement phases. Unlike typical tomb corridors that slope downward, the passage angles upward and intersects with the burial chamber at a height of 1.4 or 1.7 m (4 ft 7 in or 5 ft 7 in) above the chamber floor. Archaeological evidence suggests this modification served as an emergency egress route after flooding blocked the original corridor.
The tomb's condition was notably compromised, primarily due to flooding that occurred shortly after Thutmose II's interment. There were no fragments of proper burial goods, but many fragments of pottery vessels, mainly from chambers B and C indicate that a burial took place. Archaeological evidence suggested that after these ancient floods, many of the tomb's original contents were moved to protect them from further damage.
Some time after his initial burial, Thutmose II's body was moved to the Deir el-Bahari Cache where it was discovered in 1881. Even though his body was badly mutilated by tomb robbers in antiquity, his body showed signs that he did not have an easy life. The Archaeologist Gaston Maspero unwrapped the mummy on July 1st, 1886, and reported the following:
“He had scarcely reached the age of thirty when he fell victim to
a disease of which the process of embalming could not remove
the traces. The skin was scabrous in patches and covered with scars,
while the upper part of the skull was bald; the body was thin and
somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigor and muscular
power.”
-Gaston Maspero – 06/01/1886
Possible Pharaoh of the Biblical Exodus Account
Tuthmosis II is one of the more popular candidates for the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Biblical scholar Alfred Edersheim proposes in his book, “Bible History of the Old Testament” which was published in 1887, that Tuthmosis II is best qualified to be the Pharaoh of the Exodus based on the fact that he had a brief prosperous reign and then a sudden collapse with no son to succeed him. Edersheim states that Tuthmosis II is the only Pharaoh's mummy to have cysts, possible evidence of plagues that spread throughout the Egyptian and Hittite Empires at the time.
Upon his death, his 2-year -old son, Tuthmosis III, would succeed him under the direction of his step-mother, Hatshepsut. She would take the throne herself and proclaim herself the new ruler of Egypt.
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